Генрих ii (генрих ii из династии валуа). Король Франции Генрих II. Династия Валуа Генрих 2 король англии кратко
енрих получил прекрасное воспитание и образование сначала в Руане, а затем в Анжере и Бристоле. От отца Генрих унаследовал родовые владения - графства Анжу, Турень и Мэн, а также Нормандию, которую захватил силой, разгромив сторонников Стефана Блуаского. В 1152 году девятнадцатилетний Генрих женился на тридцатилетней Алиеноре, владелице огромного герцогства Аквитания. Таким образом Генрих стал самым могущественным феодалом Франции: ему принадлежала вся западная половина страны.
Вскоре Генрих обратил свой взор на Англию, на корону которой он претендовал как внук . В 1153 году он вторгся с войском в Англию и вынудил короля пойти на перемирие. Сломленный внезапной смертью сына, признал Генриха наследником и через несколько месяцев умер.
Генриху досталось тяжёлое наследство. Страна сильно пострадала от междоусобиц последних десятилетий. Воцарение Генриха было воспринято с энтузиазмом. Новый король был крепок, силён, не любил излишеств в еде и одежде, предпочитая короткий анжуйский плащ длинной одежде нормандцев; был прост и доступен, оценивал людей по заслугам. Пожалуй, единственным его недостатком была излишняя эмоциональность: Генрих мог кататься на полу в приступе ярости или впасть в глубочайшее отчаяние, однако у него хватало сил и твёрдости так же требовательно относиться к себе, как и к другим.
Генрих распустил иностранных наёмников, разрушил замки, незаконно выстроенные баронами во время безвластия, лишил многих дворян земель и титулов, розданных и , упразднил баронские суды. Сделано это так быстро и решительно, что бароны даже пикнуть не успели. В 1156 году Генрих отобрал у робкого шотландского короля Нортумбрию и Камбрию, вернув северные границы Англии ко временам своего деда. принёс Генриху вассальную присягу, был посвящён им в рыцари и получил в лен Хантингдон. В 1158 году вассалами Генриха стали правители Уэльса, но до прямого включения этой части Британии в состав Английского королевства было ещё далеко. В том же году он обручил своего 8-летнего сына с 5-летней дочерью графа Бретанского, предложив тому помощь в обмен на обещание сделать своим наследником. Словом, в короткий срок Генрих II поднял престиж английской короны на небывалую высоту; в английских землях установился мир и порядок.
Однако ещё более чем Англией Генрих занимался своими делами во . Посчитано, что за 35 лет правления он побывал в Англии лишь 13 раз, и ни разу не был там дольше 2 лет. Как самый могущественный феодал , Генрих участвовал в распрях между французским королём и его вассалами.
Установление мира в Англии способствовало развитию культуры, науки и образования. За сто лет, прошедших с нормандского завоевания Англии, саксонские и нормандские традиции постепенно сливались. Особенно это касалось языка. К этому времени уже сформировался среднеанглийский язык, сохранивший в общих чертах прежнюю грамматику, но вобравший много французских слов, и начала появляться литература на английском языке. В первой половине XII века были написаны (правда, на латыни) такие исторические труды как "История английских королей" Уильяма Мальмсберийского и "История бриттов" Гальфрида Монмутского. Последняя книга, правда, больше походила на сборник мифов, так как в ней бритты выводились от римлянина , праправнука Энея Троянского, но зато она возбудила интерес к истории Кельтской Британии и привела к появлению цикла художественных произведений о короле .
В Англии стали появляться выдающиеся учёные. Аделар Батский, наставник юного Генриха иного путешествовал и перевёл на латынь труды античных авторов, сохранённые в арабской традиции. Роберт Честерский переводил труды арабских учёных и познакомил европейцев с алгеброй, алхимией и Кораном. Развитию науки способствовало открытие университета в Оксфорде.
Укрепив границы и усмирив баронов, Генрих вознамерился уладить дела с церковью, которая во времена Стефана Блуаского получила слишком много самостоятельности и привилегий. В частности, церковники не подлежали королевскому суду и даже в случае совершения тяжких преступлений, таких, как убийство, подлежали церковному суду, гораздо более снисходительному. Надеясь урегулировать вопрос в свою пользу, в 1163 году Генрих назначил архиепископом Кентерберийским своего друга и советника Томаса Бекета. Однако, заняв кафедру, Бекет неожиданно поменял взгляды и из друга короля превратился в его злейшего врага. Последовало затяжное противостояние, во время которого Бекету пришлось бежать во Францию, а папа Александр III едва не отлучил от Генриха от церкви. Развязка наступила в 1170 году, когда Бекет отлучил от церкви епископов, которые в его отсутствие и без его ведома короновали сына Генриха. Узнав об этом, король, находившийся в это время на континенте, пришёл в ярость и возмутился тем, что никто из его приближённых до сих пор "не избавил его от этого попа". Четыре рыцаря Генриха - Реджинальд Фитц-Урс, Хьюг де Морвиль, Уильям де Траси и Ричард ле Бретон - поняли намёк и немедленно отправились в Англию. 29 декабря 1170 года, встретив Бекета у входа в Кентерберийский собор накануне вечерни, они приказали ему явиться к Генриху, а когда тот отказался, зарубили его прямо на ступенях алтаря.
Весть об убийстве архиепископа в соборном храме произвела потрясающее впечатление на все народы западной церкви. Под угрозой отлучения от церкви и наложении интердикта на Англию Генрих поклялся на Библии, что не отдавал приказа убить Бекета, пошёл на значительные уступки церкви и дал обет участвовать в крестовом походе. Сразу после этого при помощи папы он захватил три из четырёх областей Ирландии, оставив независимым лишь Ольстер.
В 1170 году к проблемам военным добавились семейные распри. Генрих разделил государство между тремя старшими сыновьями. был коронован королём Англии (его коронация сорвала примирение Генриха II с Томасом Бекетом) а также назначен правителем наследных земель Плантагенетов - , и Мэна. Ричарду предназначалась и графство - фьефы его матери, а Готфриду - по праву жены. Однако власть братьев была чисто номинальной. Жёсткая опека Генриха мешала им, и они объединились с и несколькими феодалами в коалицию против отца. В распоряжении Генриха была небольшая армия, однако благодаря своей решительности он разбил войско коалиции. Сыновья были вынуждены принести присягу на верность отцу.
13 июля 1174 Генрих публично покаялся на могиле Томаса Бекета, уже канонизированного к тому времени святого, и дал подвергнуть себя бичеванию. Вскоре после этого он подавил мятеж на севере Англии, и организовавший его король Шотландии был вынужден признать себя вассалом Англии.
Разобравшись с проблемами внешними, Генрих занялся внутренними делами. В 1176 году была восстановлена саксонская система судопроизводства с присяжными заседателями. Собрание баронов превратилось в некий прообраз парламента. Специальным указом была создана милиция, военная служба стала обязательной для всех свободных подданных.
Генрих II Язомирготт (нем. Heinrich II Jasomirgott; 1107-13 января 1177 г.) - маркграф Австрии (1141-1156), герцог Австрии (c 1156 г.), пфальцграф Рейнский (1140-1141), а также, под именем Генрих XI, герцог Баварии (1141-1156), из династии Бабенбергов.
Генрих II был сыном Леопольда III Святого и Агнессы, дочери императора Генриха IV. В 1140 г. он стал пфальцграфом Рейнским, однако, после неожиданной смерти старшего брата Леопольда IV в 1141 г., вернулся в Баварию.
Унаследовав от своего брата конфликт с Вельфами за баварский престол, Генрих II был вынужден в начале своего правления оборонять свои владения от войск Вельфов и подавлять восстания их сторонников в Баварии. В 1147 г. в Австрию вторглись венгерская армия, которая, однако, была разбита Генрихом II в сражении на реке Лейта. Одержав победу над венграми, герцог отправился в крестовый поход, в ходе которого женился на византийской принцессе Феодоре Комнин. По возвращении в Баварию вновь разгорелась война с Вельфами. Положение осложнилось в 1152 г., после вступления на престол Священной Римской империи Фридриха I, стремящегося к мирному разрешению конфликта между Вельфами и Бабенбергами для консолидации сил империи с целью завоевания Италии.
В 1156 г. император Фридрих I передал Баварию главе дома Вельфов Генриху Льву, а в качестве компенсации Генриху II издал особый патент об австрийских владениях Бабенбергов, известный под названием Privilegium Minus. Этим документом Австрия возводилась в ранг герцогства, провозглашалась её полная независимость от Баварии и устанавливалось право наследования австрийского престола династией Бабенбергов как в мужской, так и в женской линии, а также возможность назначения герцогом своего преемника (единственное в своём роде право среди всех немецких княжеств). Таким образом была заложена основа новой австрийской государственности и созданы предпосылки для расширения самостоятельности Австрии.
В конце своего правления Генрих II участвовал в походах императора Фридриха I против итальянских городов и восставших немецких князей. В 1166 г. герцог вёл от имени императора переговоры с Византией. На региональной арене Генрих II сотрудничал с Каринтией против коалиции Чехии, Венгрии и Штирии. Несмотря на успешное вторжение в Штирию, в 1176 г. чешско-венгерские войска одержали верх над австрийцами и разорили долину Дуная.
В 1145 г. Генрих II перенёс столицу Австрии в Вену. С его правления началось бурное развитие этого города. В 1147 г. было закончено строительство собора Святого Стефана в Вене, который до настоящего времени остаётся одной из главных достопримечательностей столицы.
Происхождение прозвища Генриха II - Язомирготт (Jasomirgott) - не вполне ясно. Согласно одной теории, оно восходит к арабскому языку и связано с участием герцога в крестовом походе. По другой версии, оно представляет собой укороченную фразу Ja so mir Gott helfe (если бы Бог мне помог).
Брак и дети
Лучшие дня
(1142) Гертруда Супплинбург (1115-1143), дочь Лотаря II, императора Священной Римской империи
Рихарда (1143-1200), замужем за Генрихом V, ландграфом Штеффлинга
(1148) Феодора Комнин (ум. 1183), племянница Мануила I, императора Византии:
Леопольд V (1157-1194), герцог Австрии (c 1177) и Штирии (c 1192)
Генрих, герцог Мёдлинг (1158-1223), женат (1177) на Рихзе Чешской, дочери Владислава II, короля Чехии
Агнесса (1154-1182), замужем (1168) за Иштваном III, королём Венгрии, вторым браком за Германом, герцогом Каринтии
Parentage and Early Life
Arguably one of the most effective Kings ever to wear the English crown and the first of the great Plantagenet dynasty, the future Henry II was born at Le Mans, Anjou on 5th March, 1133. He was the son of that ill-matched pair, Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou and Matilda , (known as the Empress, from her first marriage to the Holy Roman Emperor) the daughter of Henry I of England .
Henry"s parents never cared for each other, their"s was a union of convenience. Henry I chose Geoffrey to sire his grandchildren because his lands were strategically placed on the Norman frontiers and he required the support of Geoffrey"s father, his erstwhile enemy, Fulk of Anjou. He accordingly forced his highly reluctant daughter to marry the fifteen year old Geoffrey. The pair disliked each other from the outset of their union and neither was of a nature to pretend otherwise and so the scene was set for an extremely stormy marriage. They were, however, finally prevailed upon by the formidable Henry I to do their duty and produce an heir to England. They had three sons, Henry was the eldest of these and always the favourite of his adoring mother.
When the young Henry was a few months old, his delighted grandfather, Henry I, crossed over the channel from England to see his new heir and is said to have dandled the child on his knee. He was to grow very attached to his new grandson, the old warrior was said to spend much time playing with the young Henry.
Henry"s father Geoffrey"s nickname derived from a sprig of bloom, or Planta Genista, that he liked to sport in his helmet. Thus was coined the surname of one of England"s greatest dynasties, which ruled the country for the rest of the medieval era, although Plantagenet was not adopted as a surname until the mid fifteenth century. Henry"s was a vast inheritance, from his father, he received the Counties of Anjou and Maine, the Duchy of Normandy and his claim to the Kingdom of England. Henry married the legendary heiress, which added Aquitaine and Poitou to his dominions. He then owned more land in France than the French King himself.
Reign
On the death of King Stephen in 1154, Henry came to the English throne at the age of 21 in accordance with the terms of the Treaty of Wallingford. He landed in England on 8 December 1154 and took oaths of loyalty from the barons after which he was crowned at Westminster Abbey alongside his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine on 19 December.
A short but strongly built man of leonine appearance, Henry II was possessed of an immense dynamic energy and a formidable temper. He had the red hair of the Plantagenets, grey eyes that grew bloodshot in anger and a round, freckled face. Described by Peter of Blois as:-
"The lord king has been red-haired so far, except that the coming of old age and gray hair has altered that color somewhat. His height is medium, so that neither does he appear great among the small, nor yet does he seem small among the great. His head is spherical...his eyes are full, guileless, and dove-like when he is at peace, gleaming like fire when his temper is aroused, and in bursts of passion they flash like lightning. As to his hair he is in no danger of baldness, but his head has been closely shaved. He has a broad, square, lion-like face. Curved legs, a horseman"s shins, broad chest, and a boxer"s arms all announce him as a man strong, agile and bold... he never sits, unless riding a horse or eating... In a single day, if necessary, he can run through four or five day-marches and, thus foiling the plots of his enemies, frequently mocks their plots with surprise sudden arrivals...Always are in his hands bow, sword, spear and arrow, unless he be in council or in books."
He spent so much time in the saddle that his legs became bowed. Henry"s voice was reported to have been harsh and cracked, he did not care for magnificent clothing and was never still. The new King was intelligent and had acquired an immense knowledge both of languages and law.
Eleanor of Aqiutaine
Eleanor of AquitaineEleanor of Aquitaine (depicted right), Henry"s wife, was the daughter of William X, Duke of Aquitaine and Aenor de Chatellerault. She had previously been the wife of Louis VII, King of France, who had divorced her prior to her marriage to Henry. It was rumoured that the pair had been lovers before her divorce, as she had reportedly also been the paramour of Henry"s father, Geoffrey. (The formidable Matilda"s reaction to this event has unfortunately not been recorded.)
Eleanor was eleven years older than Henry, but in the early days of their marriage that did not seem to matter. Both were strong characters, used to getting their own way, the result of two such ill matched temperaments was an extremely tempestuous union. Beautiful, intelligent, cultured and powerful, Eleanor was a remarkable woman. One of the great female personalities of her age, she had been celebrated and idolized in the songs of the troubadours of her native Aquitaine.
Henry was possessed of the fearful Angevin temper, apparently a dominant family trait. In his notorious uncontrollable rages he would lie on the floor and chew at the rushes and was never slow to anger. Legend clung to the House of Anjou, one such ran that they were descended from no less a person than Satan himself. It was related that Melusine, the daughter of Satan, was the demon ancestress of the Angevins. Her husband the Count of Anjou was perplexed when Melusine always left church prior to hearing of the mass. After pondering the matter he had her forcibly restrained by his knights while the service took place. Melusine reportedly tore herself from their grasp and flew through the roof, taking two of the couple"s children with her and was never seen again.
Henry and Eleanor had a large brood of children. Sadly, their first born, William (b.1153) created Count of Poiters, the traditional title of the heirs to the Dukes of Aquitaine, died at the age of 2 at Wallingford Castle. He was buried at the feet of his great-grandfather, Henry I.
Like his grandfather before him, Henry was a man of strong passions and a serial adulterer. When Henry introduced his illegitimate son, Geoffrey, to the royal nursery, Eleanor was furious, Geoffrey had been born in the early days of their marriage, the result of a dalliance with Hikenai, a prostitute. Eleanor was deeply insulted and the rift between the couple grew steadily over time into a gaping gulf.
On inheriting England"s crown, the young Henry Plantagenet eagerly and with characteristic energy set about restoring law and order in his new kingdom. All illegal castles erected in King Stephen"s anarchic reign were demolished. He was a tireless administrator and clarified and overhauled the entire English judicial system.
Henry II | ||
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By the Grace of God, King of the English and Duke of the Normans and Aquitanians and Count of the Angevins |
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Reign | October 25, 1154–July 6, 1189 | |
Coronation | December 19, 1154 | |
Born | March 5, 1133 | |
Le Mans | ||
Died | July 6, 1189 | |
Chateau Chinon | ||
Buried | Fontevraud Abbey, Fontevraud-l"Abbaye, France | |
Predecessor | Stephen | |
Successor | Richard I | |
Consort | Eleanor of Aquitaine (1124–1204) | |
Issue | Henry the Young King (1155–1183) Richard I (1157–1199) Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany (1158–1186) Matilda, Duchess of Saxony (1156–1189) Leonora of England (1161–1214) Joan of England (1165–1199) John (1167–1216) Geoffrey, Archbishop of York (illeg., 1152–1226) William de Longespee, Third Earl of Salisbury (illeg., 1176–1226) |
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Royal House | Plantagenet | |
Father | Geoffrey of Anjou (1113–1151) | |
Mother | Empress Matilda (1102–1167) |
Henry II of England (March 5, 1133 – July 6, 1189) ruled as King of England (1154–1189), Count of Anjou, Duke of Normandy, Duke of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony, Count of Nantes, Lord of Ireland and, at various times, controlled parts of Wales, Scotland and western France . Henry was the first of the House of Plantagenet to rule England and founded the Angevin Empire. His sobriquets include "Curt Mantle" (because of the practical short cloaks he wore), "Fitz Empress," and sometimes "The Lion of Justice," which had also applied to his grandfather Henry I . Born in France, Henry II was as much French as English and ruled at a time when kingdoms were regarded as the personal possessions of their rulers, rather than as deriving any legitimacy from the people. His wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine was an influential figure. Wealthy in her own right, she exercised considerable power and was regent of England immediately after Henry"s death.
Following the disorder that accompanied the disputed reign of King Stephen, Henry"s reign saw efficient consolidation. Henry II has acquired a reputation as one of England"s greatest medieval kings developing the foundations of efficient legal and administrative systems. England"s long history of involvement in Ireland also dates from his reign.
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Henry II had a long running dispute with the Church over its right to judge criminous clergy in ecclesiastical courts. Henry wanted one standard of justice for all his subjects. He had a legitimate interest in seeing that priests who committed serious crimes, such as murder, should be liable to punishment by the lay authorities just like any other of the king"s subjects. He promoted his close friend Thomas Becket to be Archbishop of Canterbury but was offended when he took the side of the Church. An angry outburst by Henry prompted four of his knights to challenge Becket which resulted in his violent death. Henry regretted Becket"s death but the event cast a cloud over the remainder of his reign.
Biography
Early life
Henry and Eleanor had eight children, William, Henry, Richard , Geoffrey, John , Matilda , Eleanor, and Joan. William died in infancy. As a result Henry was crowned as joint king when he came of age. However, because he was never King in his own right, he is known as "Henry the Young King," not Henry III. In theory, Henry would have inherited the throne from his father, Richard his mother"s possessions, Geoffrey would have Brittany and John would have been Lord of Ireland. However, fate would ultimately decide very differently.
Henry and Eleanor"s relationship was always stormy and eventually broke down. After Eleanor encouraged her children to rebel against their father in 1173, Henry had her placed under house-arrest, where she remained for fifteen years.
Henry also had a number of illegitimate children by various women, and Eleanor had several of those children reared in the royal nursery with her own children; some remained members of the household in adulthood. He began an affair with Rosamund Clifford in 1165 but it was not until 1174, at around the time of his break with Eleanor, that Henry acknowledged her as his mistress. Almost simultaneously he began negotiating the annulment of his marriage in order to marry Alys, daughter of King Louis VII of France, who was already betrothed to Henry"s son Richard. Henry"s affair with Alys continued for some years, and, unlike Rosamund Clifford, Alys allegedly gave birth to one of Henry"s illegitimate children.
While the Illegitimate children were not valid claimants, their Royal blood made them potential problems for Henry"s legitimate successors. William de Longespee was one such child. He remained largely loyal and contented with the lands and wealth afforded to him as a bastard . Geoffrey, Bishop of Lincoln, Archbishop of York, on the other hand, was seen as a possible thorn in the side of Richard I of England . Geoffrey had been the only son to attend Henry II on his deathbed, after even the King"s favorite, John Lackland , deserted him. Richard forced him into the clergy at York, thus ending his secular ambitions. Another son, Morgan was elected to the Bishopric of Durham, although he was never consecrated due to opposition from Pope Innocent III .
Building an empire
Henry"s claims by blood and marriage
Henry II depicted in Cassell"s History of England (1902)
Henry"s father, Geoffrey Plantagenet, held rich lands as a vassal from Louis VII of France. Maine and Anjou were therefore Henry"s by birthright, amongst other lands in Western France. By maternal claim, Normandy was also to be his. However, the most valuable inheritance Henry received from his mother was a claim to the English throne. Granddaughter of William I of England , Empress Matilda should have been Queen, but was usurped by her cousin, Stephen I of England. Henry"s efforts to restore the royal line to his own family would create a dynasty spanning three centuries and thirteen Kings.
Early in January 1153, just months after his wedding, he crossed the Channel one more time. His fleet was 36 ships strong, transporting a force of 3,000 footmen and 140 horses. Sources dispute whether he landed at Dorset or Hampshire, but it is known he entered a small village church. It was January 6 and the locals were observing the Festival of the Three Kings. The correlation between the festivities and Henry"s arrival was not lost on them. "Ecce advenit dominator Dominus, et regnum in manu ejus," they exclaimed as the introit for their feast, "Behold the Lord the ruler cometh, and the Kingdom in his hand."
Henry moved quickly and within the year he had secured his right to the succession via the Treaty of Wallingford with King Stephen. He was now, for all intents and purposes, in control of England. When Stephen died in October 1154, it was only a matter of time before Henry"s treaty would bear fruit, and the quest that began with his mother would be ended. On December, 19 1154 he was crowned in Westminster Abbey, "By The Grace Of God, Henry II, King Of England." Henry Plantagenet, vassal of Louis VII, was now more powerful than the French King himself.
Lordship over Ireland
Henry II"s coat of arms were displayed as gules, a lion rampant Or red background, with a golden lion on hind legs facing to the side.
Shortly after his coronation, Henry sent an embassy to the newly elected Pope Adrian IV. Led by Bishop Arnold of Lisieux, the group of clerics requested authorisation for Henry to invade Ireland . Most historians agree that this resulted in the papal bull Laudabiliter . It is possible Henry acted under the influence of a "Canterbury plot," in which English ecclesiastics strove to dominate the Irish church. However, Henry may have simply intended to secure Ireland as a lordship for his younger brother William. The Pope granted Henry"s request as he wished to stamp out non Catholic practices in the irish Church.
William died soon after the plan was hatched and Ireland was ignored. It was not until 1166 that it came to the surface again. In that year, Diarmait Mac Murchada, a minor Irish Prince, was driven from his land of Leinster by the High King of Ireland. Diarmait followed Henry to Aquitaine, seeking an audience. He asked the English king to help him reassert control; Henry agreed and made footmen, knights and nobles available for the cause. The most prominent of these was a Welsh Norman, Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke. In exchange for his loyalty, Diarmait offered Richard his daughter Aoife in marriage and made him heir to the kingdom.
The Normans restored Diarmait to his traditional holdings, but it quickly became apparent that Henry had not offered aid purely out of kindness. In 1171, Henry arrived from France , declaring himself Lord of Ireland. All of the Normans, along with many Irish princes, took oaths of homage to Henry, and he left after six months. He never returned, but he later named his young son, the future King John of England , Lord of Ireland.
Diarmait"s appeal for outside help had made Henry Ireland"s Lord, starting 800 years of English overlordship on the island. The change was so profound that Diarmait is still remembered as a traitor of the highest order. In 1172, at the Synod of Cashel, Roman Catholicism was proclaimed as the only permitted religious practice in Ireland.
Consolidation in Scotland
Henry saw his predicament as a sign from God, that his treatment of Thomas Becket would be rewarded with defeat. He immediately did penance at Canterbury for the Archbishop "s fate and events took a turn for the better. The hostile armada dispersed in the English Channel and headed back for the continent. Henry had avoided a Flemish invasion, but Scottish invaders were still raiding in the North. Henry sent his troops to meet the Scots at Alnwick, where the English scored a devastating victory. William was captured in the chaos, removing the figurehead for rebellion, and within months all the problem fortresses had been torn down. Southern Scotland was now completely dominated by Henry, another fief in his Angevin Empire, that now stretched from the Solway Firth almost to the Mediterranean and from the Somme to the Pyrenees . By the end of this crisis, and his sons" revolt, the King was "left stronger than ever before".
Domestic policy
Dominating nobles
During Stephen"s reign, the barons in England had undermined Royal authority. Rebel castles were one problem, nobles avoiding military service was another. The new King immediately moved against the illegal fortresses that had sprung up during Stephen"s reign, having them torn down.
To counter the problem of avoiding military service, Scutage became common. This tax, paid by Henry"s barons instead of serving in his army, allowed the King to hire mercenaries. These hired troops were used to devastating effect by both Henry and his son Richard , and by 1159 the tax was central to the King"s army and his authority over vassals. Record keeping improved dramatically in order to streamline this taxation.
Legal reform
Henry II"s reign saw the establishment of Royal Magistrate courts. This allowed court officials under authority of the Crown to adjudicate on local disputes, reducing the workload on Royal courts proper and delivering justice with greater efficiency. His reign saw the production of the first written legal textbook, providing the basis of today"s "Common Law ."
Henry also worked to make the legal system fairer. Trial by ordeal and trial by combat were still common but even in the 12th century these methods were outdated. By the Assize of Clarendon, in 1166, a precursor to trial by jury became the standard. However, this group of "twelve lawful men," as the Assize commonly refers to it, provides a service more similar to a grand jury , alerting court officials to matters suitable for prosecution. Trial by combat was still legal in England until 1819, but Henry"s support of juries was a great contribution to the country"s social history. The Assize of Northampton, in 1176, cemented the earlier agreements at Clarendon. This reform proved one of Henry"s major contributions to the social history of England.
Religious policy
Strengthening royal control over the Church
In the tradition of Norman kings, Henry II was keen to dominate the church like the state and aspired to do away with the special privileges of the English clergy, which he regarded as fetters on his authority. So he appointed as Chancellor, Thomas Becket who enforced the king’s danegeld taxes, a traditional medieval land tax that was exacted from all landowners, including churches and bishoprics. When Archbishop Theobald died in 1161, Henry conceived what must have seemed a neat solution to the problem of the imposing of his will upon the church: installing his friend Becket as Archbishop of Canterbury .
Becket however did a volte-face and initiated a project to liberate of the Church in England from the very limitations which he had formerly helped to enforce. His aim was twofold: the complete exemption of the Church from all civil jurisdiction, with undivided control of the clergy, freedom of appeal, etc., and the acquisition and security of an independent fund of church property.
About one in six of the population of England were clergymen, many of whom were not ordained to the priesthood. All clergy could claim the right to be tried in ecclesiastical courts where they would invariably receive a more lenient sentence than if tried in the criminal courts of the land. Henry"s problem was the need to restore order after the chaos which marked the civil war between King Stephen and Empress Matilda. The king"s officials claimed that over a hundred murderers had escaped their proper punishment because they had claimed the right to be tried in church courts.
So at Clarendon Palace on January, 30 1164, the King set out sixteen constitutions . In the anarchic conditions of Henry II"s predecessor, Stephen, the church had extended its jurisdiction in the void. It was claimed that Constitutions would restore the judicial customs observed during the reign of Henry I (1100–35), while in fact they were a part of Henry II"s larger expansion of royal jurisdiction into the Church and civil law, which was the defining aspect of his reign. Secular courts, increasingly under the King"s influence, would also have jurisdiction over clerical trials and disputes. Henry"s authority guaranteed him majority support, but the newly appointed Archbishop of Canterbury refused to ratify the proposals.
Henry was characteristically stubborn and on 8 October 1164, he called the Archbishop, Thomas Becket , before the Royal Council. However, Becket had fled to France and was under the protection of Henry"s rival, Louis VII of France.
The King continued doggedly in his pursuit of control over his clerics, to the point where his religious policy became detrimental to his subjects. By 1170, the Pope was considering excommunicating all of Britain. Only Henry"s agreement that Becket could return to England without penalty prevented this fate.
Murder of Thomas Becket
The martyrdom of St Thomas from the St Thomas Altarpiece commissioned in 1424, from Meister Francke by the Guild of English Merchants in Hamburg
In June 1170, the archbishop of York and the bishops of London and Salisbury held the coronation of Henry the Young King in York. This was a breach of Canterbury"s privilege of coronation, for which the Pope suspended the three. But for Becket, that was not enough, and in November 1170, he excommunicated all three. While the three bishops fled to the king in Normandy, Becket continued to excommunicate his opponents in the church. Soon word of this reached Henry who was in Normandy at the time. After these latest reports of Becket"s activities, Henry is reported to have raised his head from his sickbed and roared a lament of frustration. Passionate words from the angry king, reputedly, "Will no one rid me of this meddlesome priest?" - a provocative statement which would perhaps have been just as riling to the knights and barons of his household at whom it was aimed as his actual words. Bitter at Becket , his old friend, constantly thwarting his clerical constitutions, the King shouted in anger but most likely not with intent. However, four of Henry"s knights, Reginald Fitzurse, Hugh de Moreville, William de Tracy, and Richard le Breton overheard their King"s cries and decided to act on his words.
On 29 December 1170, they entered Canterbury Cathedral, finding Becket near the stairs to the crypt. They beat down the Archbishop, killing him with several blows. Becket"s brains were scattered upon the ground with the words; "Let us go, this fellow will not be getting up again." Whatever the rights and wrongs, it certainly tainted Henry"s later reign. For the remaining 20 years of his rule, he would personally regret the death of a man who "in happier times...had been a friend".
Just three years later, Becket was canonized and revered as a martyr against secular interference in God"s church; Pope Alexander III had declared Thomas Becket a saint. Plantagenet historian John Harvey believes "The martyrdom of Thomas Becket was a martyrdom which he had repeatedly gone out of his way to seek...one cannot but feel sympathy towards Henry". Wherever the true intent and blame lies, it was yet another failure in Henry"s religious policy, an arena which he seemed to lack adequate subtlety. And politically, Henry had to sign the Compromise of Avranches which removed from the secular courts almost all jurisdiction over the clergy.
Succession crisis
Henry II"s attempt to divide his titles amongst his sons but keep the power associated with them provoked them into trying to take control of the lands assigned to them, which amounted to treason, at least in Henry"s eyes. Gerald of Wales reports that when King Henry gave the kiss of peace to his son Richard, he said softly, "May the Lord never permit me to die until I have taken due vengeance upon you."
When Henry"s legitimate sons rebelled against him, they often had the help of King Louis VII of France. Henry the Young King died in 1183. After his death, there was a power struggle between the three sons who were left. Henry had wanted John to be the next king, but Eleanor favored Richard. Henry had always loved John more than any of the other sons. Geoffrey tried to overcome both John and Richard, but he was unsuccessful; a horse trampled him to death in 1186. Henry"s third son, Richard the Lionheart (1157–1199), with the assistance of Philip II Augustus of France, attacked and defeated Henry on July 4, 1189; Henry died at the Chateau Chinon on July 6, 1189, and lies entombed in Fontevraud Abbey, near Chinon and Saumur in the Anjou Region of present-day France. Henry"s illegitimate son Geoffrey, Archbishop of York stood by his father the whole time and he alone among Henry’s sons attended Henry"s deathbed. Henry’s last words, according to Gerald of Wales, were “Shame, shame on a conquered king.” Another version of the king"s last words, “my other sons are the real bastards," alludes to the fact that the only son to attend his deathbed was his illegitimate son Geoffrey.
Richard the Lionheart then became King of England. John succeeded to the throne upon Richard"s death in 1199, laying aside the claims of Geoffrey"s children Arthur of Brittany and Eleanor.
In the arts
- Thirteenth Century: "Book of the Civilized Man" is a poem believed to have been written in Henry"s court and is the first "book of manners" or "courtesy book" in English history, representing the start of a new awakening to etiquette and decorum in English culture.
- 1935: The assassination of Archbishop Thomas Becket is the subject of the celebrated 1935 play Murder in the Cathedral by T. S. Eliot .
- 1964: A fuller account of the struggle between Henry II and Becket is portrayed in the film Becket based on the Jean Anouilh play and starring Peter O"Toole as Henry and Richard Burton as Becket.
- 1966: The treasons associated with the royal and ducal successions formed the main theme of the play The Lion in Winter, which also served as the basis of a 1968 film with O"Toole reprising the role of Henry and Katharine Hepburn as Eleanor of Aquitaine . In 2003, the film was remade as a television film with Patrick Stewart and Glenn Close in the leading roles.
- 1978: Henry II and his sons King Richard and King John also provided the subjects of the BBC2 television series The Devil"s Crown. The 1978 book of the same title was written by Richard Barber and published as a guide to the broadcast series, which starred Brian Cox as Henry and Jane Lapotaire as Eleanor.
- 1989: The final chapters of Ken Follett"s novel The Pillars of the Earth concern the assassination of Thomas Becket and end with Henry"s penance.
- 1994: The first decade of Henry"s marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine is portrayed in the novel Beloved Enemy: The Passions of Eleanor of Aquitaine, a Novel by Ellen Jones.
Notes
References
- Barber, Richard. The Devil"s Crown: A History of Henry II and His Sons. Conshohocken, PA: 1996. ISBN 9780585100098
- Bartlett, Robert. England Under The Norman and Angevin Kings 1075-1225. NY: Oxford University. 2000. ISBN 9780198227410
- Harvey, John. The Plantagenets. London: Fontana. 1972. ISBN 0006329497 Duke of Normandy
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